Identification of toxin-binding protein involved in resistance to Cry1 toxins, and related screening methods

ABSTRACT

The subject invention relates in part to the surprising and unexpected discovery that insects that are resistant to  Bacillus thuringiensis  Cry toxins have measurably altered alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity as compared to insects that are susceptible to Cry toxins. This and other surprising discoveries reported herein have broad implications in areas such as managing and monitoring the development of insect resistance to  B.t . toxins. For example, the subject invention provides a simple and fast assay (enzymatic or otherwise) for detecting ALP activity levels and thereby monitoring the development of resistance by insects to crystal protein insect toxins. There was no prior motivation or suggestion to go about resistance monitoring using this simple and easy approach.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to provisional application Ser. No. 60/490,119, filed Jul. 25, 2003.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Billions of dollars are spent each year in efforts to control insects that damage crops and threaten food supplies. One alternative to the use of synthetic chemical pesticides are naturally occurring insecticidal crystal protein (Cry) toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.). In order to preserve Cry proteins as a viable option for pest control in years to come, efforts are being made to prevent their over-use, as the development of resistance to Cry proteins by some insect strains has been observed under certain conditions. The two main insects that are currently known to develop resistance to Cry proteins are the diamondback moth (DBM; Plutella xylostella) and the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens).

In understanding how these and other insects might develop resistance to Cry proteins, the mechanism(s) of action of Cry proteins is being investigated. Specific binding to insect midgut receptors is a key step in the mode of action of Cry proteins. Despite exceptions [1], in most cases Cry toxin specificity and potency correlate with the extent of toxin binding to midgut brush border membrane receptors in vitro [2, 3]. Effective toxin binding to receptors results in toxin insertion and oligomerization on the midgut cell membrane, leading to pore formation and cell death by osmotic shock [4].

In brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from Heliothis virescens larvae, three groups of binding sites (A, B, and C) for Cry1A toxins were proposed based on their toxin binding specificities [5, 6]. The A binding sites, which bind Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa and Cry1Ja toxins, include the cadherin-like protein HevCaLP (Jurat-Fuentes et al., in preparation) and a 170-kDa N-aminopeptidase (APN) [5, 7-9]. Currently, there is evidence that both HevCaLP [10] and the 170-kDa APN [8, 10] function as Cry1A toxin receptors, and knockout of HevCaLP, a protein predicted to function in cell adhesion processes, results in Cry1 resistance in larvae of YHD2 strains of H. virescens [10]. In the B binding site group, a 130-kDa protein has been shown to recognize both Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac. The C binding site group includes Cry1Ac toxin-binding proteins smaller than 100-kDa in size [5].

Cry1 toxin-binding proteins of 60- to 80-kDa in size have been described in toxin overlays of BBMV proteins from H. virescens [5], Manduca sexta [1], and Plodia interpunctella [12]. In 2D proteomic analysis of M. sexta BBMV proteins, McNall and Adang [13] reported Cry1Ac binding to a form of alkaline phosphatase (ALP, EC 3.1.3.1). Membrane bound ALP from Bombyx mori and M. sexta are attached to the brush border cell membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor [13-15]. Specific interactions between Cry1Ac and ALPs under native conditions resulting have been reported for M. sexta [16] and H. virescens [17].

Altered glycosylation of 63- and 68-kDa glycoproteins was proposed as the reason for reduced binding of soybean agglutinin (SBA) in H. virescens YHD2 strain, which are resistant to Cry1Ac [11]. However, a correlation between a reduction in the amount of the 68 kDa protein and the development, by insects, of resistance to B.t. Cry proteins was never before suggested or investigated. Furthermore, a link between membrane-bound alkaline phosphatases (and associated levels of enzyme activity) and the development of resistance by insects to Cry proteins has never been proposed or suggested.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The subject invention relates in part to the surprising and unexpected discovery that insects that are resistant to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry toxins have measurably altered alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity as compared to insects that are susceptible to Cry toxins. This and other surprising discoveries reported herein have broad implications in areas such as managing and monitoring the development of insect resistance to B.t. toxins. For example, the subject invention provides a simple and fast assay (enzymatic or otherwise) for detecting ALP activity levels and thereby monitoring the development of resistance by insects to crystal protein insect toxins. There was no prior motivation or suggestion to go about resistance monitoring using this simple and easy approach.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 illustrates identification of the 68-kDa BBMV glycoprotein as HvALP, a form of alkaline phosphatase.

FIG. 2 illustrates analysis of oligosaccharides on HvALP by lectin blotting.

FIG. 3 shows investigation of Cry1Ac binding to N-linked oligosaccharides on HvALP.

FIG. 4 illustrates a comparison of HvALP levels and alkaline phosphatase activity between BBMV from susceptible and resistant H. virescens larvae.

FIG. 5 shows Cry1Ac ligand blots (A and B), HvALP immunodetection (C), and identification of HvALP protein spots from a 2D gel (D) by PMF searches. (E) shows detection of HvALP by soybean agglutinin (SBA) or sera against mALP (HvALP) in BBMV from different H. virescens strains.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The subject invention generally relates, in part, to assays for monitoring the development by insects of resistance to crystal protein insect toxins (Cry proteins), such as Cry proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.). These assays can be practiced in the form of simple kits that are preferably used in the field to screen for the presence of resistant insects. In preferred embodiments, levels of enzyme activity or amounts of enzyme from gut cell membranes are assessed, relative to the levels and amounts from known susceptible insects, for determining the presence or absence of resistant insects. In further preferred embodiments, the enzyme is an alkaline phospatase. In still further preferred embodiments, the alkaline phosphatase is a receptor that binds a Cry protein.

To provide more context for this invention, it should be noted that it was proposed that changes in glycosylation of 63- and 68-kDa midgut glycoproteins in the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens) correlated with reduced binding (of SBA) and the development of resistance, by H. virescens, to the Cry1Ac toxin from (B.t.). [11]. The subject invention stems in part from the unexpected and surprising findings that this 68-kDa protein from H. virescens is a membrane-bound, GPI-anchored form of alkaline phosphatase (ALP). This protein is further identified as a receptor for Cry1Ac. This receptor protein is thus referred to herein as HvALP (for H. virescens alkaline phosphatase). HvALP is identified herein as being involved in Cry1Ac toxicity to H. virescens larvae. Still further surprising is the discovery, as reported herein, that insect resistance to B.t. toxins correlates to altered levels of activity and/or amounts of membrane-bound ALP. This finding has broad implications for areas such as managing insect resistance to B.t. toxins. For example, the subject invention provides a simple and fast assay (enzymatic or otherwise) for detecting and monitoring the development of resistance by insects to crystal protein insect toxins. There was no prior motivation or suggestion to go about resistance monitoring using this simple and easy approach.

This invention stems in part from the observation that changes in alkaline phosphatase contribute to insects developing resistance to Cry proteins. It was proposed that a specific isoform of alkaline phosphatase binds Cry1Ac, and this receptor is modified in YHD2 resistant larvae (a B.t.-resistant strain of H. virescens). The subject invention relates in part from the discovery that HvALP activity is lower in brush border membrane vesicles from the YHD2 strain.

Ligand and lectin blots together with glycosidase digestion assays revealed that the existence of N-linked oligosaccharides containing terminal N-Acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues on HvALP was necessary for Cry1Ac binding. Results reported herein indicate that reduced soybean agglutinin (SBA) binding to HvALP from Cry1Ac resistant larvae was surprisingly attributable to reduced amounts of HvALP in resistant larvae. Immunoblotting and specific alkaline phosphatase activity of BBMV proteins from susceptible and resistant larvae indicated that decreased HvALP levels were produced in YHD2 larvae. Quantification of specific alkaline phosphatase activity in brush border membrane proteins from susceptible (YDK and F1 generation from backcrosses) and resistant YHD2 H. virescens larvae confirmed the reduced HvALP levels observation.

Accordingly, the subject invention provides methods for assaying and detecting altered ALP levels (including detecting less ALP activity) in a suitable sample (a membrane preparation from a lepidopteran pest, such as virescens, in preferred embodiments), as compared to ALP levels in non-resistant insects. The presence of an unexpected level of ALP indicates a B.t.-resistant insect. The subject invention provides a simple and fast assay (enzymatic or otherwise) for detecting and monitoring the development of resistance by insects to crystal protein insect toxins. There was no prior motivation or suggestion to go about resistance monitoring using this simple and easy approach.

Prior to the subject invention, it was never suspected or suggested that the reduced binding was due to an alteration to or a reduction in the levels (amount or activity) of the subject ALP receptors. As explained in more detail below, receptors generally serve important cell functions. Thus, one would not have expected, and it was very surprising, to find resistance to be associated with absence or reduction of this receptor. There was no prior motivation to screen, in the context of tracking B.t. resistance, an insect for altered or reduced levels of ALP receptors as discussed in detail herein.

It is interesting to note that in whole-insect brush border membrane vesicle (BBMV) preparations obtained from Plutella xylostella (the diamondback moth or DBM), alkaline phosphatase activity was found to be higher in both the homogenate and BBMV of resistant insects compared to susceptible insect strains. In-gel activity assays of SDS-PAGE separated BBMV shows higher activities for both whole-insect and gut BBMV preparations of resistant insects compared to the corresponding susceptible preparations. Without being bound by a specific theory regarding mechanism of action, it is possible that resistant DBM have two forms of ALP, and the B.t. receptor form is “shed” and another non-binding form is present in greater amounts. With this in mind, it is now possible, according to the subject invention, to design antibodies (or other probes), for use in assays discussed herein, that bind specifically (only) to the Cry binding form of ALP (in a particular insect) and not to other forms of ALP.

The initial hypothesis to explain reduced Cry1Ac and SBA binding in YHD2 larvae was based on possible alteration of protein glycosylation in resistant insects [11]. Surprisingly however, presently disclosed results from immunoblotting and alkaline phosphatase activity detection revealed instead that HvALP protein levels were decreased in BBMV from YHD2 larvae. Therefore, decreased SBA binding to HvALP from YHD2 vesicles was presently, and surprisingly, found to be due to reduced protein levels rather than altered glycosylation. Although due to limiting YHD2 materials, oligosaccharide analysis was only performed in BBMV from YDK larvae, hence potential alterations of HvALP glycosylation in YHD2 larvae cannot be completely ruled out. In any case, considering that F1 generation larvae bound Cry1Ac toxin and were only two fold resistant to Cry1Ac [11], the present results show a direct correlation between decreased HvALP levels and increased resistance to Cry1Ac. (BBMV from the F1 generation of reciprocal crosses recovered HvALP levels observed for the susceptible parents independently of the sex of the susceptible progenitor, demonstrating autosomal recessive transmission of this trait.) While YHD2 larvae might have multiple resistance mechanisms, what is important is the subject discovery of the link between reduced levels of this 68 kDa protein and resistance, which was never heretofore suggested.

Electrophoretic variations of alkaline phosphatase between different strains or developmental stages have been reported for Drosophila melanogaster [54], Aedes aegypti [55], and B. mori [56, 57], although the physiological consequences of these variations are not clearly understood. In the Tsunomata B. mori strain, reduced mALP activity correlated with undetectable levels of mALP antigen, while there were no alterations in gene copy or transcript size [57]. These results suggested that electrophoretic mALP polymorphisms were due to post-transcriptional processes.

Insect alkaline phosphatases have been proposed to function in active absorption of metabolites and transport processes [29], although there is also evidence for participation in cell adhesion and differentiation [59]. According to these important functions, significant fitness costs associated with reduced ALP activity would be expected. Thus, one would not have expected viable insects to develop resistance by eliminating or reducing membrane-associated ALP.

The specific mechanism by which YHD2 larvae reduce HvALP expression can be further investigated. As stated above, if information from B. mori mALP could be applied to HvALP, the decreased activity observed in virescens might not be related to changes in gene copy number or transcription. An alternative hypothetical mechanism to reduce receptors in midgut brush border membranes was previously proposed by Lu and Adang [60]. According to this hypothesis, GPI-anchored proteins would be selectively solubilized by endogenous PIPLC digestion in Bt-resistant insects. Such treatment would result in elimination of potential Cry toxin binding sites, such as aminopeptidases, from the midgut epithelium. In support of this hypothesis, B. mori mALP is solubilized by midgut epithelium enzymes to form digestive fluid alkaline phosphatase (dALP), which is highly resistant to degradation by midgut proteases [61].

In any case, the subject results demonstrate a direct correlation between decreased HvALP levels and Cry resistance in H. virescens. HvALP may be a critical component in toxicity, or alternatively, the reduced HvALP levels observed in resistant larvae may indicate broader alterations in the brush border membrane. One possibility is that resistant larvae have altered membrane components such as lipid rafts that affect the amounts of HvALP localized to the brush border membrane. The specific role of HvALP in Cry1Ac intoxication can be investigated further.

Whatever the exact mechanisms of action are, HvALP is clearly identified herein as a resistance marker, so biochemical and DNA-based tests may now be developed to detect emergence of resistance to B.t. crops in field populations. Sample insects can be collected in many ways from many different locations. The subject invention relates to the discovery that ALP is a membrane receptor for Cry toxins, and insects such as Heliothios virescens can evolve resistance to Cry1Ac, for example, by somehow shedding this receptor (i.e., by effectively reducing the amount of this enzyme in their gut/on gut cells). These surprising discoveries have broad implications in areas such as managing insect resistance to B.t. toxins. For example, insects can be screened for the presence or absence of resistance by, for example, isolating membrane proteins and screening them for the presence or absence of the activity associated with ALP. The presence or absence of the activity of this protein can also be screened directly (without first isolating membrane proteins).

As will be recognized in the art in light of the subject disclosure, the subject invention is not limited to screening Heliothis virescens. Other insects, including Plutella xylostella (diamondback moths) and Manduca sexta, can also be screened with methods and apparatuses of the subject invention. Lepidopterans are preferred screening targets, but other insects can also be screend according to the subject invention. In light of the subject discovery, it will now be known that decreased amounts of ALP receptors can be an indicator of insects developing resistance to crystal protein insect toxins.

Furthermore, the subject invention is not limited to Cry1Ac receptors and managing and/or monitoring resistance to Cry1Ac. Resistance to other insect toxin proteins can also be assessed according to the subject invention. Cry1A toxins (such as 1Aa, 1Ab, and 1Ac) are one preferred group of toxins for which the development of resistance thereto can be monitored according to the subject invention. Other Cry proteins are identified in “Revision of the Nomenclature for the Bacillus thuringiensis Pesticidal Crystal Proteins,” N. Crickmore, D. R. Zeigler, J. Feitelson, E. Schnepf, J. Van Rie, D. Lereclus, J. Baum, and D. H. Dean, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews (1998) Vol 62:807-813. It is also available online.

Detecting decreased (or altered) levels of ALP in an insect's gut, gut membrane, and/or gut cell membranes can be done in a variety of ways. One way is by detecting ALP enzymatic activity in a suitable activity. Antibodies (monoclonal or polyclonal) to ALP can also be used in detection methods. Methods such as ELISA are well-known in the art. Antibodies can also be linked to another type of detectable label, such as a fluorescent label. Thus, the level of bound fluorescent antibody can be assessed. Levels of RNA, for example, can also be detected. As alkaline phosphatase is a known enzyme, and the sequences of some genes that encode ALP are available in GENBANK, suitable nucleic acid probes can be designed for use in detection (hybridization) methods of the subject invention. For example, sequence corresponding to 260 amino acids of Bombyx mori alkaline phosphatase has been cloned. Thus, for some aspects of this invention (e.g., for some screening methods), various known forms of this protein can be used.

All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety to the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification.

Following are examples that illustrate procedures for practicing the invention. These examples should not be construed as limiting. All percentages are by weight and all solvent mixture proportions are by volume unless otherwise noted.

EXAMPLE 1 Insect Strains and Brush Border Membrane Vesicle (BBMV) Preparation

H. virescens laboratory strains YDK and YHD2 have been previously described [18]. YDK is the unselected susceptible control colony for the Cry1Ac-selected YHD2 strain, which developed 10,000-fold resistance to Cry 1 Ac when compared to susceptible YDK larvae [19]. After continuous selection with Cry1Ac, levels of resistance increased to 73,000-fold [11]. Fifth instar larvae from each strain were dissected and midguts frozen and kept at −80° C. until used to prepare BBMV.

BBMV were isolated by the differential centrifugation method of Wolfersberger et al. [20]. BBMV proteins were quantified by the method of Bradford [21], using BSA as standard, and kept at −80° C. until used. N-aminopeptidase (APN) activity using leucine-p-nitroanilide as the substrate was used as a marker for brush border enzyme enrichment in the BBMV preparations. APN activities were enriched 6-8 fold in the BBMV preparations compared to initial midgut homogenates.

EXAMPLE 2 Cry1Ac Toxin Purification and Labeling

B. thuringiensis strain HD-73 obtained from the Bacillus Genetic Stock Center (Ohio, USA) was used to produce Cry1Ac. Mutated Cry1Ac ⁵⁰⁹QNR⁵¹¹-⁵⁰⁹AAA⁵¹¹ was expressed in Escherichia coli MV 1190 kindly provided by Dr. Donald Dean (Ohio State University, Ohio, USA), and purified as described elsewhere [22]. This Cry1Ac mutant toxin lacks the GalNAc binding properties of the wild type toxin [23]. Cry1Ac crystalline inclusions were solubilized, activated and purified as previously described [24]. Purified toxin samples (verified by reducing SDS-10% PAGE) were pooled, protein concentration determined as for BBMV proteins and stored at −80° C. until used.

Purified Cry 1 Ac (1 μg) was radiolabeled with 0.5 mCi of Na¹²⁵I by the chloramine T method [1]. Specific activities of labeled samples were 3-8 mCi/mg, as determined using the bindability method of Schumacher et al. [25]. Labeled toxins were kept at 4° C. and used within 10 days.

EXAMPLE 3 Identification of the 68-kDa BBMV Glycoprotein as Alkaline Phosphatase

FIG. 1 illustrates identification of the 68-kDa BBMV glycoprotein as HvALP, a form of alkaline phosphatase. BBMV proteins from H. virescens strains specified in FIG. 1 were separated by electrophoresis and Coomassie blue stained to control for equal protein loads (FIG. 1A) or transferred to PVDF filters. After blocking, filters were probed with SBA lectin (FIG. 1B) or sera against the membrane bound form of ALP (mALP) from B. mori [27]. See FIG. 1C. Blots were developed using enhanced chemiluminescence. Alkaline phosphatase activity in separated BBMV proteins (FIG. 1D) was detected by incubating filters in NBT-BCIP until purple precipitate was visualized in the region of enzymatic activity. For detection of GPI-anchored proteins in BBMV protein blots (FIG. 1E), protein blots were treated with PIPLC and cleaved GPI anchors detected by probing with sera against the CRD determinant. BBMV proteins containing cleaved GPI anchors were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence. The arrow indicates electrophoretic position of HvALP on the filters.

Although no protein amount differences were detected in Coomassie blue stained gels (FIG. 1A), the 68-kDa protein had reduced soybean agglutinin (SBA) binding in BBMV from YHD2 larvae (FIG. 1B). This protein was recognized by sera against mALP (FIG. 1C) and displayed ALP activity in blots of BBMV proteins (FIG. 1D), demonstrating that this protein is a form of alkaline phosphatase. PIPLC digestion was used to determine whether the 68-kDa protein was GPI anchored to BBMV in H. virescens. As shown in FIG. 1E, after PIPLC digestion, anti-CRD sera recognized the 68-kDa protein in H. virescens BBMV, suggesting that this protein is GPI-anchored to the brush border membrane. These results also show that the 68-kDa protein with altered glycosylation in the Cry1Ac-resistant YHD2 larvae was a form of ALP. Based on these results, the 68-kDa GPI-anchored glycoprotein was named HvALP for H. virescens alkaline phosphatase.

EXAMPLE 4 Quantification of Alkaline Phosphatase and Aminopeptidase Activities

Specific alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aminopeptidase-N (APN) enzymatic activities of BBMV proteins were measured using p-nitrophenyl phosphate disodium (pNPP) and leucine-p-nitroanilide (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo., USA) as substrates, respectively. BBMV proteins (1 μg) were mixed with ALP buffer (100 mM Tris/HCl pH 9.5, 100 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl₂) or PBS buffer (10 mM Na₂HPO₄ pH 7.5, 135 mM NaCl, 2 mM KCl) containing 1.25 mM pNPP or 0.8 mM leucine-p-nitroanilide, respectively. Enzymatic activities were monitored as changes in OD at 405 nm wavelength for 5 minutes at room temperature (ALP) or at 37° C. (APN) in a microplate reader (Molecular Devices). One enzymatic unit was defined as the amount of enzyme that would hydrolyze 1.0 μmole of substrate to chromogenic product per minute at the specific reaction pH and temperature. Data shown are the mean specific activities from at least four independent BBMV batches from each H. virescens strain measured in at least three independent experiments.

EXAMPLE 5 Importance of ALP Glycosylation for Cry1Ac Binding; Ligand Lectin and Immunoblots of BBMV Proteins

To investigate the oligosaccharides present on HvALP from Cry1Ac susceptible larvae, lectin blotting was performed using selected lectins (Table 1) and BBMV proteins from YDK larvae. After lectin blotting, HvALP on blots was detected by sera against B. mori mALP to confirm lectin binding to HvALP.

BBMV proteins (15 or 2 μg) were separated by SDS-PAGE 8%, and gels were either stained or electrotransferred to polyvinylidiene difluoride Q (PVDF) membrane filters (Millipore). After overnight transfer, filters were blocked for one hour at room temperature with PBS buffer containing 0.1% Tween-20 (PBST) and 3% BSA.

For immunoblots, blocked filters were probed with a 1:25,000 dilution of polyclonal serum against the membrane bound form of alkaline phosphatase (mALP) from B. mori (kindly provided by Dr. Masanobu Itoh, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan) for one hour. (It should be noted that B. mori ALP is one of the few known insect ALPs available, and that these antibodies were not previously used in work in any way associated with studying B.t. proteins.) After washing with PBST containing 0.1% BSA, blots were probed with anti-rabbit serum (Sigma) conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or alkaline phosphatase. Filters were developed using enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL, Amersham BioSciences) for peroxidase conjugates, or nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) and 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-phosphate (BCIP) for alkaline phosphatase conjugates. No endogenous alkaline phosphatase activity was detected with NBT-BCIP in blots of BBMV proteins when samples were boiled before electrophoresis. Periodate oxidation treatment of blots prior to immunoblotting did not alter antigenicity of BBMV proteins, showing that the serum used recognized protein and not sugar epitopes.

For lectin blots, blocked filters containing separated BBMV proteins were incubated with lectins from Canavalia ensiformis (ConA, at 0.05 μg/ml), Artocarpus integrifolia (Jac, at 0.5 μg/ml), Glycine max (SBA, at 1 μg/ml), Ricinus communis (RCA-I, at 5 μg/ml), Dolichus biflorus (DBA, at 5 μg/ml), Sophora japonica (SJA, at 5 μg/ml), Wistaria floribunda (WFL, at 1 μg/ml), Helix pomatia (HPL, at 1 μg/ml), or Griffonia simplicifolia (GSL-I, at 5 μg/ml) for one hour in blocking buffer (PBST plus 3% BSA). Con A, Jac, SBA, and HPL were purchased from Sigma; RCA-I, SJA, WFL, and GSL-I were from Vector laboratories (Burlingame, Calif., USA).

Lectins conjugated to HRP were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL). Blots of biotinylated lectins were probed with streptavidin-HRP conjugate (Vector) and then visualized as HRP-conjugated lectins. As controls for non-specific lectin binding, lectins were incubated with specific hapten sugars (Table 1) for 30 min. at room temperature before probing BBMV blots. This treatment eliminated or greatly decreased lectin binding to BBMV proteins on filters. See FIG. 2, which illustrates analysis of oligosaccharides on HvALP by lectin blotting. BBMV proteins from YDK larvae were separated by electrophoresis and transferred to PVDF filters. After blocking, filters were probed with specific lectins as indicated in the figure. Lane 1: bound lectins were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence. Lane 2: immunodetection of HvALP using sera against the mALP from B. mori. HvALP was visualized by anti-rabbit-alkaline phosphatase conjugate and NBT-BCIP, so that both lectin blots and HvALP immunodetection could be performed using the same filter. Lane 3: competition of lectin binding with the respective hapten sugar (See Table 1, below). For release of N-linked oligosaccharides from BBMV proteins (PNG-F/SBA), filters were treated with peptide-N-glycanase F (PNG-F). After washing, filters were probed with SBA and developed as for SBA lectin blots. All treatments were replicated at least thrice to confirm reproducibility.

Table 1 shows sugar specificities of lectins (based on [62]) used in blots and respective hapten sugars used for lectin specificity controls. Several lectins were selected according to their specificity of binding to galactose (Gal), N-Acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), N-Acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), mannose (Man) or glucose (Glc). TABLE 1 Lectin (abbreviation) Sugar specificity Hapten sugar Canavalis ensiformis α-Man 0.2 M αmethylman/ (ConA) α-Glc glc Artocarpus integrifolia Galβ₁→3GalNAc 0.8 M Gal (Jac) Galβ₁→3,4GlcNAc Glycine max (SBA) α/βGalNAc 0.2 M GalNAc α/βGal Ricinus communis (RCA-I) Galβ₁→4GlcNAc 0.2 M Gal Galα₁→3Gal Dolichus biflorus (DBA) GalNAcα₁→3GalNAc 0.2 M GalNAc GalNAcα₁→3Gal Sophora japonica (SJA) Galβ₁→3GalNAc 0.2 M Gal Galβ₁→3,4GlcNAc Wistaria floribunda (WFL) α/βGalNAc 0.2 M GalNAc Helix pomatia (HPL) GalNAcα₁→3GalNAc 0.2 M GalNAc GalNAcα₁→3Gal Griffonia simplicifolia GalNAcα₁→3Gal 0.2 M Gal (GSL) Galα₁→3,6Gal/Glc

For SBA binding competition, filters were blocked as above, and then 12 μg/ml of Cry1Ac or the Cry 1 Ac mutant protein ⁵⁰⁹QNR⁵¹¹-⁵⁰⁹AAA⁵¹¹ were added to the blocking buffer along with SBA lectin (1 μg/ml). After one-hour incubation and washing, filters were developed as described for lectin blots.

Ligand blots were done as previously described [5]. ¹²⁵I-Cry1Ac (1 nM) was used to probe blotted BBMV proteins in blocking buffer for one hour at room temperature. After washing, filters were exposed to photographic film at −80° C. for 24 hours.

To detect HvALP in the filters used for lectin or ligand blotting, after development, filters were washed in PBST plus 0.1% BSA overnight. Blocking and HvALP immunodetection were performed as described above. To avoid interference with lectin or toxin detection, bound mALP antisera was detected by anti-rabbit sera conjugated to alkaline phosphatase.

As shown in FIG. 2, HvALP was recognized by lectins from Canavalia ensiformis (ConA), Glycine max (SBA), and Wistaria floribunda (WFL). The different pattern of BBMV proteins being recognized by both SBA and WFL (both bind terminal GalNAc) was probably due to the existence of terminal GalNAc in linkages poorly recognized by one of the lectins. Conversely, no binding to HvALP was detected using lectins from Artocarpus integrifolia(Jac), Ricinus communis (RCA), Dolichus biflorus (DBA), or Helix pomatia (HPL). Although proteins of similar size to HvALP were bound by Griffonia simplicifolia (GSL) and Sophora japonica (SJA) lectins, immunodetection of HvALP in these filters demonstrated that the detected lectin binding proteins were not HvALP. To further test the existence of terminal GalNAc on N-linked oligosaccharides on HvALP, we performed digestion of blotted BBMV proteins with peptide-N-glycosidase-F (PNG-F), which releases N-linked oligosaccharides as N-glycosides from polypeptide chains. Digestion of BBMV proteins with PNG-F eliminated binding of SBA to HvALP (FIG. 2), supporting the hypothesis that this protein has N-linked oligosaccharides with terminal GalNAc residues. Binding of SBA to other BBMV proteins was also decreased after PNG-F digestion, suggesting the presence of GalNAc or galactose on N-linked oligosaccharides in these proteins. Thus, according to one aspect of the subject invention, an insect (or insects) can also be screened for the presence or absence (or reduced amounts) of glycosylation to determine if the insect is resistant to crystal protein toxins (which would be indicated by decreased amounts of bound lectins (preferably SBA).

EXAMPLE 6 Digestion of BBMV Proteins with peptide-N-glycosidase F

Release of N-linked oligosaccharides from BBMV proteins was achieved by digestion of blotted BBMV proteins with peptide-N-glycosidase F (PNG-F). BBMV proteins (15 μg) were separated by SDS-8% PAGE and transferred to PVDF filters as above. Filters were incubated in 5 ml of PBS buffer (pH 7.4) containing 0.1% SDS, 0.5% Triton-X-100 and 30 units of PNG-F (Boehringer-Mannheim) for 17 hours at 37° C. After treatment, filters were blocked and probed as for SBA lectin blots or ¹²⁵I-Cry1Ac ligand blots. Controls, which had no PNG-F in the incubation buffer, showed no differences in lectin or toxin binding when compared to SBA and ¹²⁵I--Cry1Ac blots.

EXAMPLE 7 Detection of GPI Anchors

The presence of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors in BBMV proteins was detected following the method described by Luo et al. [8]. Briefly, after phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PIPLC) digestion of BBMV blots, cleaved GPI anchors were detected by immunological detection of the exposed cross-reacting determinant (CRD) epitope contained in the residue of the GPI anchor by probing with anti-CRD sera (kindly provided by Dr. Mensa-Wilmot, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga., USA). Blots were probed with anti-rabbit-HRP conjugate (Sigma) before developing with enhanced chemiluminescence as above. In controls, which had no PIPLC in the blocking buffer, no proteins were detected.

EXAMPLE 8 Detection of Alkaline Phosphatase Activity in SDS-PAGE Gels and Blots

To detect alkaline phosphatase activity in BBMV, proteins (15 or 2 μg) solubilized in sample buffer [26] were not heat denatured before gel loading. After SDS-PAGE 8% electrophoresis and transfer to PVDF, filters were washed with ALP buffer for 15 minutes at room temperature. After addition of 330 μg/ml of NBT and 165 μg/ml of BCIP to the ALP buffer, alkaline phosphatase activity was visualized by the formation of a purple-red precipitate. Reactions were stopped by incubation of filters in 50 ml of PBS pH 7.5 containing 200 μl of 500 mM EDTA pH 8.0.

EXAMPLE 9 Importance of ALP Glycosylation for Cry1Ac Binding

To test the hypothesis that Cry1Ac toxin bound to the terminal GalNAc residue on HvALP, SBA binding to HvALP was competed with Cry1Ac. The reciprocal competition assay was not performed due to the 10⁶-fold lower affinity of SBA for GalNAc (K_(d)=0.3 mM; [28]) when compared to Cry1Ac affinity for its binding sites (K_(d)=1.1 nM; [5]).

FIG. 3 shows investigation of Cry1Ac binding to N-linked oligosaccharides on HvALP. For competition of SBA binding (A), blocked PVDF filters containing separated BBMV proteins from YDK larvae were probed with SBA lectin (SBA) or SBA lectin plus either Cry1Ac (Cry1Ac/SBA) or the Cry1Ac mutant ⁵⁰⁹QNR⁵¹¹-⁵⁰⁹AAA⁵¹¹ (QNR/SBA), which lacks GalNAc binding. Bound SBA lectin was detected by enhanced chemiluminescence. For ligand blots (B), BBMV proteins binding Cry1Ac were detected by probing blocked filters with 1 nM ¹²⁵I-Cry1Ac for one hour (Cry1Ac). Importance of N-linked oligosaccharides for ¹²⁵I-Cry1Ac binding (PNG/Cry 1 Ac) was tested by digestion of BBMV proteins with PNG-F glycosidase. After digestion, filters were washed, blocked and treated as described for ligand blots. Bound toxin was detected by autoradiography. Asterisks indicate the electrophoretic position of the 170- and 130-kDa proteins, arrows indicate the position of HvALP in the filters. Radiography of the radiolabeled Cry1Ac toxin used for these experiments (¹²⁵I-Cry1Ac) is included.

When comparing SBA binding to BBMV (FIG. 3A) with Cry1Ac competition blots (FIG. 3B), Cry1Ac prevented SBA binding to HvALP as well as to other BBMV proteins, indicative of toxin binding to terminal GalNAc residues on these proteins. Binding of SBA to the 170-kDa APN was almost unaffected by the presence of Cry1Ac. As a control for toxin binding not due to GalNAc recognition, we competed SBA binding with a Cry1Ac mutant, ⁵⁰⁹QNR⁵¹¹-⁵⁰⁹AAA⁵¹¹, which lacks GalNAc binding [23]. SBA binding to HvALP was unchanged by ⁵⁰⁹QNR⁵¹¹-⁵⁰⁹AAA⁵¹¹ (FIG. 3C), demonstrating that Cry1Ac bound to terminal GalNAc on HvALP.

To provide further support for the hypothesis of Cry1Ac binding to GalNAc on HvALP, ligand blots were performed with ¹²⁵I-Cry1Ac. Cry1Ac bound to several BBMV proteins, including HvALP (FIG. 3D). When N-linked oligosaccharides were released from HvALP by PNG-F digestion, Cry1Ac did not bind to this protein, demonstrating that toxin binding was dependent on the presence of N-linked oligosaccharides on HvALP. Binding to other Cry1Ac binding proteins was also greatly decreased by PNG-F digestion, indicating the importance of N-linked protein glycosylation for Cry1Ac binding on blots.

EXAMPLE 10 Reduced HvALP Correlates with Resistance to Cry1Ac

To investigate the possibility that reduced SBA binding to HvALP from YHD2 larvae (FIG. 1B) was a result of decreased HvALP protein levels, the following comparisons were conducted using immunodetection and alkaline phosphatase activity blots: HvALP from YHD2, YDK, and larvae from the F1 generation of backcrosses between YDK and YHD2 adults. Two different types of F1 larvae, according to the sex of the susceptible parent, were used to determine the potential existence of sex linkage. As shown in FIG. 4B, sera against the membrane-bound form of alkaline phosphatase from B. mori recognized HvALP in BBMV from YDK, YHD2 and F1 larvae. No differences in intensity of recognition were observed between HvALP from YDK and F1 vesicles, while recognition of HvALP in YHD2 was clearly reduced.

FIG. 4 illustrates a comparison of HvALP levels and alkaline phosphatase activity between BBMV from susceptible and resistant H. virescens larvae. BBMV proteins from YDK (lane 1), YHD2 (lane 2), F1 generation of YDK males crossed with YHD2 females (lane 6), or F1 generation of YDK females crossed with YHD2 males (lane 7), were separated by electrophoresis. For comparison, lanes 3, 4 and 5 contained YHD2 BBMV proteins at 3-, 5-, and 10-fold respectively the protein concentration used for YDK and F1 lanes. Gels were Coomassie blue stained (panel A), or transferred to PVDF filters (panels B and C). After blocking, blot in panel B was probed with sera against the mALP from B. mori to detect HvALP. For visualization of alkaline phosphatase activity (panel C), the filter was washed in ALP buffer, and then NBT-BCIP included in the buffer as described in Materials and Methods. Alkaline phosphatase activity was visualized as a purple precipitate.

To confirm reduction in HvALP antigen in BBMV from YHD2, the protein load was increased by 3-, 5- and 10-fold to compare to YDK and F1 vesicles. Increased BBMV protein concentrations as observed in the stained gel (FIG. 4A) resulted in augmented HvALP recognition (lanes 3, 4 and 5 in FIG. 4B), clearly suggesting a reduction in HvALP protein levels in BBMV from YHD2 larvae. Visual comparison of the lanes with increasing YHD2 protein loads and the YDK and F1 lanes in the blots (FIG. 4B) suggested a 3- to 5-fold reduction in HvALP antigen levels in BBMV from YHD2 larvae when compared to YDK or F1 vesicle proteins.

Thus, it was predicted that reduced HvALP amounts in BBMV from YHD2 larvae would result in reduced alkaline phosphatase activity. Alkaline phosphatase activity in blots of BBMV proteins from YDK and F1 larvae was similar, and higher than activity in YHD2 vesicles (FIG. 4C). In agreement with reduced protein levels observed in FIG. 4B, specific alkaline phosphatase activity in suspensions of BBMV from YHD2 insects was reduced 3- to 4-fold when compared to YDK or F1 vesicles (see Table 2, below). Aminopeptidase-N specific activity was used as control, with no significant differences found between BBMV from YDK, YHD2 or F1 larvae.

Table 2 shows specific alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aminopeptidase-N (APN) activities of BBMV suspensions from YDK, YHD2 and F1 larvae. Specific activity of BBMV suspensions is expressed in units per milligram of BBMV protein (U/mg). One enzymatic unit was defined as the amount of enzyme that would hydrolyze 1.0 μmole of substrate to chromogenic product per minute at the specific reaction pH and temperature. SD=standard deviation of the mean based on at least six independent measurements. TABLE 2 ALP activity APN activity BBMV sample (U/mg) ± SD (U/mg) ± SD YDK 223 ± 91 2192 ± 427 YHD2  77 ± 37 2364 ± 290 YDK♀ × YHD2♂ 375 ± 12 3156 ± 62  YHD2♀ × YDK♂ 292 ± 12 2921 ± 275

These results indicated that reduced amounts of HvALP in BBMV from YHD2 larvae result in reduced alkaline phosphatase activity and correlate with resistance to Cry1Ac and reduced Cry1Ac toxin binding.

EXAMPLE 11 Further Characterization of the Nature of HvALP as a Cry1Ac Receptor and Alteration of this Receptor in Resistant YHD2 Larvae

Two main approaches are discussed in this Example: (1) proteomic analysis through 2D in-gel differential electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) of susceptible and resistant BBMV proteins to identify changes related to HvALP, and (2) studies on the molecular mechanism responsible for reduced HvALP levels in resistant larvae. Towards completion of (1), Peptide Mass Fingerprints (PMFs) of BBMV protein spots were identified as HvALP based on detection by sera against the mALP from Bombyx mori (FIG. 2C) and specific Cry1Ac binding on 2D ligand blots (FIGS. 2A and 2B). Database searches using the obtained PMFs identified the protein spots as membrane bound alkaline phosphatase. These results also highlight the utility of PMF database searches to identify proteins separated in 2D gels and identify HvALP as a Cry1Ac binding protein in 2D ligand blots.

Relative to (2), in further studying HvALP alteration as a mechanism for Cry1Ac resistance, HvALP in susceptible (YDK) and additional resistant H. virescens strains (CXC, and KCBhyb) was compared using SBA lectin blots, immunoblots with anti-mALP sera, and measurements of ALP activity in BBMV.

FIG. 5 shows Cry1Ac ligand blots (A and B), HvALP immunodetection (C), and identification of HvALP protein spots from a 2D gel (D) by PMF searches. BBMV proteins from susceptible larvae were separated by 2D electrophoresis, then stained with Sypro Ruby stain (D) or transferred to PVDF filters. After blocking, filters were probed with 5 nM biotinylated Cry1Ac (A) and 500-fold excess unlabeled Cry1Ac as competitor (B) or with sera against the mALP from B. mori (C). Protein spots from (D) were digested with trypsin and the resulting PMFs were used for database searches. Identification of the spots is indicated. The Z value is a measure of probability (values higher than 2.3 denote 95% confidence of correct match). (E) Detection of HvALP by soybean agglutinin (SBA) or sera against mALP (HvALP) in BBMV from different H. virescens strains. Immunodetection of actin in the same samples was used as loading control.

As shown in FIG. 5E, HvALP levels were reduced in BBMV from YHD2 and KCBhyb larvae when compared to YDK and CXC vesicles. SBA binding, which reflects the presence of terminal GalNAc residues recognized by Cry1Ac (EJB manuscript), was greatly reduced in BBMV from all the resistant strains.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aminopeptidase-N (APN) activities in BBMV from susceptible (YDK) and resistant (YHD2, CXC, KCBHyb) strains of H. virescens were assayed. In agreement with the HvALP alterations, ALP activity was reduced in BBMV from YHD2 (129±65 U/mg), CXC (116±65 U/mg), and KCBhyb (123±67 U/mg) when compared to YDK (362±135 U/mg) vesicles. Assays were performed as described in Jurat-Fuentes and Adang (2004). Specific activity (±standard deviation) is expressed in units per milligram of BBMV protein (U/mg). One unit is defined as the amount of enzyme that will hydrolyze 1.0 μmole of p-nitrophenyl phosphate (PNPP) top-nitrophenol (PNP) and phosphate per minute at pH 9.5 at 25° C.

Therefore, these results suggest that alterations of (including reductions in the amount of) HvALP (in protein amounts, activities, and/or glycosylation) correlate with resistance to Cry1Ac, and those HvALP alterations may be used as resistance markers.

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1. A method of screening an insect for resistance to an insecticidal crystal protein wherein said method comprises obtaining a gut cell membrane sample from said insect and assaying said sample for a reduced level of an alkaline phosphatase protein.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein said protein is approximately 68 kDa.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein said level of alkaline phosphatase is compared to a susceptible level expected from a non-resistant insect.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein said assaying step comprises screening said sample for alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity and assessing whether said activity corresponds to reduced amounts of alkaline phosphatase crystal protein receptor enzyme in said sample as compared to a sample from a susceptible insect strain, thereby indicating evolution of resistance to said crystal protein by said insect and a corresponding reduction in the amount of said receptor on gut cell membranes of said insect.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein said assaying step comprises adding a plurality of detectable antibodies to said sample wherein said antibodies bind to an approximately 68 kDa alkaline phosphatase enzyme, detecting a level of bound antibody, and assessing whether said level corresponds to reduced amounts of alkaline phosphatase crystal protein receptor enzyme in said sample as compared to a sample from a susceptible insect strain, thereby indicating evolution of resistance to said crystal protein by said insect and a corresponding reduction in the amount of said receptor on gut cell membranes of said insect.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein said insect is a lepidopteran insect.
 7. The method of claim 5 wherein said enzyme is a Heliothis virescens enzyme.
 8. The method of claim 1 wherein said crystal protein is a Bacillus thuringiensis crystal protein.
 9. The method of claim 8 wherein said crystal protein is a Cry1Ac protein.
 10. The method of claim 1 wherein said sample comprises brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV).
 11. The method of claim 1 wherein said sample is a whole midgut sample from said insect.
 12. A method of screening an insect for resistance to an insecticidal crystal protein wherein said method comprises obtaining a gut cell membrane sample from said insect and assaying said sample for a higher level of an alkaline phosphatase protein, wherein said higher level indicates that said insect is resistant to said crystal protein.
 13. The method of claim 12 wherein said sample comprises brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV).
 14. The method of claim 12 wherein said insect is a lepidopteran insect.
 15. The method of claim 12 wherein said insect is a Plutella xylostella.
 16. The method of claim 12 wherein said assaying step comprises screening said sample for alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity and assessing whether said activity corresponds to higher amounts of alkaline phosphatase crystal protein receptor enzyme in said sample as compared to a sample from a susceptible insect strain, thereby indicating evolution of resistance to said crystal protein by said insect.
 17. A kit for screening an insect for resistance to an insecticidal crystal protein wherein said kit comprises a collection means for obtaining a gut cell membrane sample from said insect, a holding means for holding said sample, and an assaying means for assaying said sample for an altered level of an alkaline phosphatase protein, wherein an altered level of alkaline phosphatase indicates a resistant insect and an unaltered level indicates a susceptible insect.
 18. The kit of claim 17 where said assaying means is selected from the group consisting of a detectable antibody that binds an alkaline phosphatase, a detectable substrate that undergoes enzymatic degradation in the presence of alkaline phosphatase, and a nucleic acid probe.
 19. The kit of claim 18 wherein said alkaline phosphatase protein is a receptor for a crystal protein insect toxin and said assaying means in an antibody and said antibody is a labeled antibody that specifically binds said alkaline phosphatase protein receptor.
 20. The kit of claim 17 wherein said insect is a Heliothis virescens and said sample is assayed for a reduced amount of alkaline phosphatase activity. 